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Frankish (reconstructed endonym: *italic=yes), also known as Old Franconian or Old Frankish, was the West Germanic language spoken by the Franks from the 5th to 10th centuries.
Franks under king Chlodio would settle in Roman Gaul in the 5th century. One of his successors, named Clovis I, would take over the Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis (in modern day France). Outnumbered by the local populace, the ruling Franks there would adapt to its language which was a Vulgar Latin dialect. However, many modern French language words and place names are still of Frankish origin.
Between the 5th and 10th centuries, Frankish spoken in Northeastern France, present-day Belgium, and the Netherlands is subsequently referred to as Old Dutch, whereas the Frankish varieties spoken in the Rhineland were heavily influenced by Elbe Germanic and the Second Germanic consonant shift and would form part of the modern Central Franconian and Rhine Franconian dialects of German Language and Luxembourgish.Harbert, Wayne Eugene (2007). The Germanic Languages. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge / New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–17.
The Old Frankish language is poorly attested and mostly reconstructed from Frankish loanwords in Old French, and inherited words in Old Dutch, as recorded between the 6th to 12th centuries. A notable exception is the Bergakker inscription, which may represent a primary record of 5th-century Frankish, though it is debated whether the inscription is written in Frankish, or Old Dutch.
In a modern linguistics context, the language of the early Franks is variously called "Old Frankish" or "Old Franconian" and refers to the language of the Franks prior to the advent of the High German consonant shift, which took place between 600 and 700 AD. After this consonant shift the Frankish dialect diverges, with the dialects which would become modern Low Franconian not undergoing the consonantal shift, while all others did so Rhenish fan. Rheinischer Fächer – Karte des Landschaftsverband Rheinland As a result, the distinction between Old Dutch and Old Frankish is largely negligible, with Old Dutch (also called Old Low Franconian) being the term used to differentiate between the affected and non-affected variants following the aforementioned Second Germanic consonant shift.Bernard Mees, "The Bergakker Inscription and the Beginnings of Dutch", in: italic=yes, edited by Erika Langbroek, Arend Quak, Annelies Roeleveld, Paula Vermeyden, published by Rodopi, 2002, , , pp. 23–26
]] The Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups: West, East and North Germanic. Their exact relation is difficult to determine, and they remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, rendering some individual varieties difficult to classify.
The language spoken by the Franks was part of the West Germanic language group, which had features from Proto-Germanic in the late Jastorf culture (c. 1st century BC). The West Germanic group is characterized by a number of phonology and morphological innovations not found in North and East Germanic. The West Germanic varieties of the time are generally split into three dialect groups: Ingvaeonic (North Sea Germanic), Istvaeones (Weser–Rhine Germanic) and Irminones (Elbe Germanic). While each had its own distinct characteristics, there certainly must have still been a high degree of mutual intelligibility between these dialects. In fact, it is unclear whether the West Germanic continuum of this time period, or indeed Franconian itself, should still be considered a single language or if it should be considered a collection of similar dialects.Graeme Davis (2006:154) notes "the languages of the Germanic group in the Old period are much closer than has previously been noted. Indeed it would not be inappropriate to regard them as dialects of one language." In:
In any case, it appears that the Frankish tribes, or the later Franks, fit primarily into the Istvaeonic dialect group, with certain Ingvaeonic influences towards the northwest (still seen in modern Dutch), and more Irminonic (High German) influences towards the southeast.
These are the earliest sentences yet found of Old Franconian.
During this early period, the Franks were divided politically and geographically into two groups: the Salian Franks and the Ripuarian Franks. The language (or set of dialects) spoken by the Salian Franks during this period is sometimes referred to as early "Old Low Franconian", and consisted of two groups: "Old West Low Franconian" and "Old East Low Franconian". The language (or set of dialects) spoken by the Ripuarian Franks are referred to just as Old Franconian dialects (or, by some, as Old Frankish dialects).
However, as already stated above, it may be more accurate to think of these dialects not as early Old Franconian but as Istvaeonic dialects in the West Germanic branch of Proto-Germanic.
]] During the expansion into France and Germany, many Frankish people remained in the original core Frankish territories in the north (i.e. southern Netherlands, Flanders, a small part of northern France, and the adjoining area in Germany centered on Cologne). The Franks united as a single group under Salian Frank leadership around 500 AD. Politically, the Ripuarian Franks existed as a separate group only until about 500 AD, after which they were subsumed into the Salian Franks. The Franks were united, but the various Frankish groups must have continued to live in the same areas that they had lived in before unification, and to speak the same dialects as before.
There must have been a close relationship between the various Franconian dialects. There was also a close relationship between Old Low Franconian (i.e. Old Dutch) and its neighboring Old Saxon and Old Frisian languages and dialects to the north and northeast, as well as the related Old English (Anglo-Saxon) dialects spoken in southern and eastern Britain.
A widening cultural divide grew between the Franks remaining in the north and the rulers far to the south.Milis, L.J.R., "A Long Beginning: The Low Countries Through the Tenth Century" in J.C.H. Blom & E. Lamberts History of the Low Countries, pp. 6–18, Berghahn Books, 1999. . Franks continued to reside in their original territories and to speak their original dialects and languages. It is not known what they called their language, but it is possible that they always called it "Diets" (i.e. "the people's language") or something similar. The word Diets is cognate with the Old English word þēodisc which, likewise, meant both nation and speech.
Philologists think of Old Dutch and Old West Low Franconian as being the same language. However, sometimes reference is made to a transition from the language spoken by the Salian Franks to Old Dutch. The language spoken by the Salian Franks must have developed significantly during the seven centuries from 200 to 900 AD. At some point, the language spoken by the Franks must have become identifiably Dutch. Because Franconian texts are almost non-existent and Old Dutch texts scarce and fragmentary, it is difficult to determine when such a transition occurred, but it is thought to have happened by the end of the 9th century and perhaps earlier. By 900 AD the language spoken was recognizably an early form of Dutch, but that might also have been the case earlier.de Vries, Jan W., Roland Willemyns and Peter Burger, Het verhaal van een taal, Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2003, pp. 12, 21–27. On page 25: " …Een groot deel van het noorden van Frankrijk was in die tijd tweetalig Germaans-Romaans, en gedurende een paar eeuwen handhaafde het Germaans zich er. Maar in de zevende eeuw begon er opnieuw een romaniseringsbeweging en door de versmelting van beide volken werd de naam Franken voortaan ook gebezigd voor de Romanen ten noordern van de Loire. Frankisch of François werd de naam de (Romaanse) taal. De nieuwe naam voor de Germaanse volkstaal hield hiermee verband: Diets of Duits, dat wil zeggen "volks", "volkstaal". At. Page 27: " …Aan het einde van de negende eeuw kan er zeker van Nederlands gesproken worden; hoe long daarvoor dat ook het geval was, kan niet met zekerheid worden uitgemaakt." It Old Dutch made the transition to Middle Dutch around 1150. A Dutch-French language boundary came into existence (but this was originally south of where it is today).
Although the practice of alluding to tribal names from the Migration Period when naming dialect groups during the early stages of Germanic Philology was common as the linguistic borders of historical ancestor dialects were, at the time, thought to closely mirror the supposed Stem duchy of the Frankish Empire at the start of the Early Middle Ages, for many of the varieties grouped under Franconian, the diachronical connection to the actual Frankish language remains unclear.
The Second Germanic consonant shift, with Low Franconian (including Dutch language and Afrikaans) not participating whereas the Central Franconian (which includes Luxembourgish) did, to varying degrees, is typically the main isoglos used to divide the varieties having received the epithet Franconian.
The influence of Franconian on French is decisive for the birth of the early langues d'oïl compared to the other Romance languages, that appeared later such as Occitan language, Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish language, Italian language, etc., because its influence was greater than the respective influence of Gothic language and Lombardic (both Germanic languages) on both Occitan and the Ibero-Romance languages, and Italian language. Not all of these loanwords have been retained in modern French. French has also passed on words of Franconian origin to other Romance languages, and to English.
Old Franconian has also left many Etymon in the different northern langues d'oïl such as Burgundian, Champenois, Lorrain language, Northern Norman language, Picard language and Walloon language, more than in Standard French, and not always the same ones.See a list of Walloon names derived from Old Franconian.
Below is a non-exhaustive list of French words of Frankish origin. An asterisk prefixing a term indicates a reconstructed form of the Frankish word. Most Franconian words with the phoneme w changed it to gu when entering Old French and other Romance languages; however, the northern langues d'oil such as Picard, Northern Norman, Walloon, Burgundian, Champenois and Lorrain retained the /w/ or turned it into /v/. Perhaps the best known example is the Franconian * werra ('war' < Old Northern French werre, compare Old High German werre 'quarrel'), which entered modern French as guerre and guerra in Italian language, Occitan language, Catalan language, Spanish language and Portuguese. Other examples include gant ('gauntlet', from * want) and garder ('to guard', from * wardōn). Franconian words starting with s before another consonant developed it into es- (e.g. Franconian skirm and Old French escremie > Old Italian scrimia > Modern French escrime).
| affranchir "to free" | * frank "freeborn; unsubjugated, answering to no one", nasalized variant of * frāki "rash, untamed, impudent" | Du frank "unforced, sincere, frank", vrank "carefree, brazen", Du frank en vrij (idiom) "free as air"http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/cali003nieu01_01/cali003nieu01_01_0025.php (entry: Vrank) Du Frankrijk "France", Du vrek "miser", OHG franko "free man" "rude" | L līberāre |
| alêne "awl" (Spanish language alesna, Italian language lesina) | * alisna | Middle Dutch elsene, else, Dutch language els | Latin language sūbula |
| alise "whitebeam berry" (Old French alis, alie "whitebeam") | * alísō "alder"Because the expected outcome of * aliso is * ause, this word is sometimes erroneously attributed to a Celtic cognate, despite the fact that the outcome would have been similar. However, while a cognate is seen in Gaulish Alisanos "alder god", a comparison with the treatment of alis- in alène above and -isa in tamis below should show that the expected form is not realistic. Furthermore, the form is likely to have originally been dialectal, hence dialectal forms like allie, allouche, alosse, Berrichon aluge, , some of which clearly point to variants like Gmc * alūsó which gave MHG alze (G Else "whitebeam"). | MDu elze, Du els "alder" (vs. German language Erle "alder"); Du elsbes "whitebeam", G Else "id." | non-native to the Mediterranean |
| baron | * baro "freeman", "bare of duties" | MDu baren "to give birth", Du bar "gravely", "bare", OHG baro "freeman", OE beorn "noble" | Germanic cultural import Late, Vulgar, and Medieval Latin *baro |
| bâtard "bastard" (FrProv bâsco) | * bāst "marriage" Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, s.v. "bastard" (NY: Gramercy Books, 1996), 175: "… perhaps from Ingvaeonic * bāst-, presumed variant of * bōst- marriage + OFr -ard, taken as signifying the offspring of a polygynous marriage to a woman of lower status, a pagan tradition not sanctioned by the church; cf. OFris bost marriage …". Further, MDu had a related expression basture "whore, prostitute". However, the mainstream view sees this word as a formation built off of OFr fils de bast "bastard, lit. son conceived on a packsaddle", very much like OFr coitart "conceived on a blanket", G Bankert, Bänkling "bench child", LG Mantelkind "mantle child", and ON hrísungr "conceived in the brushwood". Bât is itself sometimes misidentified as deriving from a reflex of Germanic * banstis "barn"; cf. Goth bansts, MDu banste, LG dial. Banse, (Jutland) Bende "stall in a cow shed", ON báss "cow stall", OE bōsig "feed crib", E boose "cattle shed", and OFris bōs- (and its loans: MLG bos, Du boes "cow stall", dial. (Zeeland) boest "barn"); yet, this connection is false. | MDu bast "lust, heat, reproductive season", WFris boaste, boask "marriage" | L nothus |
| bâtir "to build" (OFr bastir "to baste, tie together") bâtiment "building" bastille "fortress" bastion "fortress" | * bastian "to bind with bast string" | MDu besten "to sew up, to connect", OHG bestan "to mend, patch", G basteln "to tinker"; MDu best "liaison" (Du gemene best "commonwealth") | L construere (It costruire) |
| bêche "spade" | *becca/bicca "pickaxe/spade" | L becca | |
| bière "beer" | * bera | Du bier | L cervisia (Celtic) |
| blanc, blanche "white" | * blank | Du blinken "to shine", blank "white, shining" | L albus |
| bleu "blue" (OFr blou, bleve) | * blao | MDu blā, blau, blaeuw, Du blauw | L caeruleus "light blue", lividus "dark blue" |
| bois "wood, forest" | * busk "bush, underbrush" | MDu bosch, busch, Du bos "forest", "bush" | L silva "forest" (OFr selve), L lignum "wood" (OFr lein)ML boscus "wood, timber" has many descendants in Romance languages, such as Sp and It boscoso "wooded." This is clearly the origin of Fr bois as well, but the source of this Medieval Latin word is unclear. |
| bourg "town/city" | * burg or * burc "fortified settlement" | Old Dutch burg, MDu burcht Gothic language baurg OHG burg OE burh, Old Saxon burg, Old Norse borg | L urbs "fortified city" |
| broder "to embroider" (OFr brosder, broisder) | * brosdōn, blend of * borst "bristle" and * brordōn "to embroider" | G Borste "boar bristle", Du borstel "bristle"; OS brordōn "to embroider, decorate", brord "needle" | L pingere "to paint; embroider" (Fr peindre "to paint") |
| broyer "to grind, crush" (OFr brier) | * brekan "to break" | Du breken "to break", | Late Latin tritāre (Occitan language trissar "to grind", but Fr trier "to sort"), LL pistāre (It pestare "to pound, crush", OFr pester), L machīnare (Dalm maknur "to grind", Rom măşina, It maşinare) |
| brun "brown" | * brūn | MDu brun and Du bruin "brown" | L fuscus. This Latin adjective means “dark”, “dusky”, or “brown”. |
| choquer "to shock" | * skukjan | Du schokken "to shock, to shake" | |
| choisir "to choose" | * kiosan | MDu kiesen, Du kiezen, keuze | L ēligere (Fr élire "to elect"), Vulgar Latin exēligere (cf. It scegliere), excolligere (Catalan language escollir, Sp escoger, Pg escolher) |
| chouette "barn owl" (OFr çuete, dim. of choë, choue "jackdaw") | * kōwa, kāwa "chough, jackdaw" | MDu couwe "rook", Du kauw, kaauw "chough" | not distinguished in Latin: L būbō "owl", ōtus "eared owl", ulula "screech owl", ulucus likewise "screech owl" (cf. Sp loco "crazy"), noctua "night owl" |
| crampe "cramp" | *krampa | MDu crampe, G Krampf, Scots language cramp, ME cramp | Middle French crampe, Spanish language calambre, Norman language crampe |
| cresson "watercress" | * kresso | MDu kersse, korsse, Du kers, dial. kors | L nasturtium, LL berula (but Fr berle "water parsnip") |
| danser "to dance" (OFr dancier) | * dansōnRev. Walter W. Skeat, The Concise Dictionary of English Etymology, s.v. "dance" (NY: Harper, 1898), 108. A number of other fanciful origins are sometimes erroneously attributed to this word, such as VL * deantiare or the clumsy phonetic match OLFrk * dintjan "to stir up" (cf. Fris dintje "to quiver", Icel dynta "to convulse"). | OHG dansōn "to drag along, trail"; further to MDu densen, deinsen "to shrink back", Du deinzen "to stir; move away, back up", OHG dinsan "to pull, stretch" | LL ballare (OFr baller, It ballare, Pg bailar) |
| début "begin" | * but "stump, log" | Old Norse bútr "log, stump, butt", Old English butt "tree stump" | MF desbuter "move, begin", OF but "aim, goal, target" or butte "mound, knoll, target" |
| déchirer "to rip, tear" (OFr escirer) | * skerian "to cut, shear" | MDu scēren, Du scheren "to shave, shear", scheuren "to tear" | VL extractiāre (Prov estraçar, It stracciare), VL exquartiare "to rip into fours" (It squarciare, but Fr écarter "to move apart, distance"), exquintiare "to rip into five" (Cat/Occ esquinçar) |
| dérober "to steal, reave" (OFr rober, Sp robar) | * rōbon "to steal" | MDu rōven, Du roven "to rob" | VL furicare "to steal" (It frugare) |
| écang "swingle-dag, tool for beating fibrous stems" | * swank "bat, rod" | MDu swanc "wand, rod", Du (dial. Holland) zwang "rod" | L pistillum (Fr dial. pesselle "swingle-dag") |
| écran "screen" (OFr escran) | * skrank Webster's Encyclopedic, s.v. "screen", 1721. This term is often erroneously attached to * skermo (cf. Du scherm "screen"), but neither the vowel nor the m and vowel/ r order match. Instead, *skermo gave OFr eskirmir "to fence", from * skirmjan (cf. Old Dutch be scirman, Du be schermen "to protect", comp. Du schermen "to fence"). | MDu schrank "chassis"; G Schrank "cupboard", Schranke "fence" | L obex |
| écrevisse "crayfish" (OFr crevice) | * krebit | Du kreeft "crayfish, lobster" | L cammārus "crayfish" (cf. Occ chambre, It gambero, Pg camarão) |
| éperon "spur" (OFr esporon) | * sporo | MDu spōre, Du spoor | L calcar |
| épier "to watch" Old French espie "male spy" , Modern French espion is from Italian | * spehōn "to spy" | Du spieden, bespieden "to spy", HG spähen "to peer, to peek, to scout", | |
| escrime "fencing" < Old Italian scrimia < OFr escremie from escremir "fight" | * skirm "to protect" | Du schermen "to fence", scherm "(protective) screen", bescherming "protection", afscherming "shielding" | |
| étrier "stirrup" (OFr estrieu, estrief) | * stīgarēp, from stīgan "to go up, to mount" and rēp "band" | MDu steegereep, Du stijgreep, stijgen "to rise", steigeren | LL stapia (later ML stapēs), ML saltatorium (cf. MFr saultoir) |
| flèche "arrow" | * fliukka | Du vliek "arrow feather", MDu vliecke, OS fliuca (MLG fliecke "long arrow") | L sagitta (OFr saete, It saetta, Pg seta) |
| frais "fresh" (OFr freis, fresche) | * friska "fresh" | Du vers "fresh", fris "cold", German | |
| franc "free, exempt; straightforward, without hassle" (LL francus "freeborn, freedman") France "France" (OFr Francia) franchement "frankly" | * frank "freeborn; unsubjugated, answering to no one", nasalized variant of * frāki "rash, untamed, impudent" | MDu vrec "insolent", Du frank "unforced, sincere, frank", vrank "carefree, brazen", Nieuw woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal By I.M. Calisch and N.S. Calisch. Du Frankrijk "France", Du vrek "miser", OHG franko "free man" | L ingenuus "freeborn" L Galliaunsure etymology, debatable. The word frank as "sincere", "daring" is attested very late, after the Middle Ages. The word does not occur as such in Old Dutch or OHG. "Frank" was used in a decree of king Childeric III in the sense of free man as opposed to the native Gauls who were not free. The meaning 'free' is therefore debatable. |
| frapper "to hit, strike" (OFr fraper) | * hrapan "to jerk, snatch" Le Maxidico : dictionnaire encyclopédique de la langue française, s.v. "frapper" (Paris: La Connaissance, 1996), 498. This is worth noting since most dictionaries continue to list this word's etymology as "obscure". | Du rapen "gather up, collect", G raffen "to grab" | L ferire (OFr ferir) |
| frelon "hornet" (OFr furlone, ML fursleone) | * hurslo | MDu horsel, Du horzel | L crābrō (cf. It calabrone) |
| freux "rook" (OFr frox, fru) | * hrōk | MDu roec, Du roek | not distinguished in Latin |
| galoper "to gallop" | * wala hlaupan "to run well" | Du wel "good, well" + lopen "to run" | |
| garder "to guard" | * wardōn | MDu waerden "to defend", OS wardōn | L cavere, servare |
| gant "gauntlet" | * want | Du want "glove" | |
| givre "frost (substance)" | * gibara "drool, slobber" | EFris gever, LG Geiber, G Geifer "drool, slobber" | L gelū (cf. Fr gel "frost (event); freezing") |
| glisser "to slip" (OFr glier) | * glīdan "to glide" | MDu glīden, Du glijden "to glide"; Du glis "skid"; G gleiten, Gleis "track" | ML planare |
| grappe "bunch (of grapes)" (OFr crape, grape "hook, grape stalk") | * krāppa "hook" | MDu crappe "hook", Du (dial. Holland) krap "krank", G Krapfe "hook", (dial. Franconian) Krape "torture clamp, vice" | L racemus (Prov rasim "bunch", Cat raïm, Sp racimo, but Fr raisin "grape") |
| gris "grey" | * grîs "grey" | Du grijs "grey" | L cinereus "ash-coloured, grey" |
| guenchir "to turn aside, avoid" | * wenkjan | Du wenken "to beckon", OS wenkian "to defect, become unfaithful", OHG wenchen "to bend, buckle, warp" | |
| guérir "to heal, cure" (OFr garir "to defend") guérison "healing" (OFr garrison "healing") | * warjan "to protect, defend" | MDu weeren, Du weren "to protect, defend", Du be waren "to keep, preserve" | L sānāre (Sard sanare, Sp/Pg sanar, OFr saner), medicāre (Dalm medcuar "to heal") |
| guerre "war" | * werra "war" | Du war or wirwar "tangle", verwarren "to confuse" | L bellum |
| guider "to guide"; guide "guide" | * wītan | Du weten "to know" | L dērigere |
| guigne "heart cherry" (OFr guisne) | * wīksina Gran Diccionari de la llengua catalana, s.v. "guinda", [8] . | G Weichsel "sour cherry", (dial. Rhine Franconian) Waingsl, (dial. East Franconian) Wassen, Wachsen | non-native to the Mediterranean |
| haïr "to hate" (OFr hadir "to hate") haine "hatred" (OFr haïne "hatred") | * hatjan | Du haten "to hate", haat "hatred" | L "to hate", odium "hatred" |
| hanneton "cockchafer" | * hāno "rooster" + -eto (diminutive suffix) with sense of "beetle, weevil" | Du haan "rooster", lelie haantje "lily beetle", blad haantje "leaf beetle", G Hahn "rooster", (dial. Rhine Franconian) Hahn "sloe bug, shield bug", Lilien hähnchen "lily beetle" | LL bruchus "chafer" (cf. Fr dial. brgue, beùrgne, brégue), cossus (cf. Romansh language coss, OFr cosson "weevil") |
| haubert "hauberk" | * halsberg "neck-cover" | Du hals "neck" + berg "cover" (cf Du herberg "hostel") | L lorica |
| héron "heron" | * heigero, variant of * hraigro | MDu heiger "heron", Du reiger "heron" | L ardea |
| houx "holly" | * hulis | MDu huls, Du hulst | L aquifolium (Sp acebo), later VL acrifolium (Occ grefuèlh, agreu, Cat grèvol, It agrifoglio) |
| jardin "garden" (VL hortus gardinus "enclosed garden", Ofr jardin, jart) | * gardo "garden" | Du gaard "garden", boomgaard "orchard"; OS gardo "garden" | L hortus |
| lécher "to lick" (OFr lechier "to live in debauchery") | * leccōn "to lick" | MDu lecken, Du likken "to lick" | L lingere (Sard línghere), lambere (Sp lamer, Pg lamber) |
| maçon "bricklayer" (OFr masson, machun) | * mattio "mason"C.T. Onions, ed., Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, s.v. "mason" (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 559. This word is often erroneously attributed to * makjo "maker", based on Isidore of Seville's rendering machio (c. 7th c.), while ignoring the Reichenau Glosses citing matio (c. 8th c.). This confusion is likely due to hesitation on how to represent what must have been the palatalized sound ts. | Du metsen "to mason", metselaar "masoner"; OHG mezzo "stonemason", meizan "to beat, cut", G Metz, Steinmetz "mason" | VL murator (Occ murador, Sard muradore, It muratóre) |
| maint "many" (OFr maint, meint "many") | * menigþa "many" | Du menig "many", menigte "group of people" | |
| marais "marsh, swamp" | * marisk "marsh" | MDu marasch, meresch, maersc, Du meers "wet grassland", (dial. Holland) mars | L paludem (Occ palun, It palude) |
| maréchal "marshal" maréchaussée "military police" | * marh-skalk "horse-servant" | ODu marscalk "horse-servant" ( marchi "mare" + skalk "servant"); MDu marscalc "horse-servant, royal servant" ( mare "mare" + skalk "serf"); Du maarschalk "marshal" ( merrie "mare" + schalk "comic", schalks "teasingly") | |
| nord "north" | * Nortgouue (790–793 A.D.) "north" + "frankish district" (Du gouw, Deu Gau, Fri/LSax Go) | Du noord or noorden "north", Du Henegouwen (province of Hainaut) | L septemtrio(nes) / septentrio(nes) "north, north wind, northern regions, (pl.) seven stars near the north pole", boreas "north wind, north", aquilo "stormy wind, north wind, north", aquilonium "northerly regions, north" |
| osier "osier (basket willow); withy" (OFr osière, ML auseria) | * halsterJean Dubois, Henri Mitterrand, and Albert Dauzat, Dictionnaire étymologique et historique du français, s.v. "osier" (Paris: Larousse, 2007). | MDu halster, LG dial. Halster, Hilster "bay willow" | L vīmen "withy" (It vimine "withy", Sp mimbre, vimbre "osier", Pg vimeiro, Cat vímet "withy"), vinculum (It vinco "osier", dial. vinchio, Friul venc) |
| patte "paw" | * pata "foot sole" | Du poot "paw", Du pets "strike"; LG Pad "sole of the foot";Onions, op. cit., s.v. "pad", 640. further to G Patsche "instrument for striking the hand", Patschfuss "web foot", patschen "to dabble", (dial. Austro-Bavarian) patzen "to blot, pat, stain"Skeat, op. cit., s.v. "patois", 335. | LL branca "paw" (Sard brànca, It brince, Rom brîncă, Prov branca, Romansh language franka, but Fr branche "treelimb"), see also Deu Pranke |
| poche "pocket" | * poka "bag" | MDu poke, G dial. Pfoch "pouch, change purse" | L bulga "leather bag" (Fr bouge "bulge"), LL bursa "coin purse" (Fr bourse "money pouch, purse", It bórsa, Sp/Pg bolsa) |
| riche "Wealth" | * rīkī "rich" | MDu rike, Du rijk "kingdom", "rich" | L |
| sale "dirty" | * salo ", sallow" | MDu salu, saluwe "discolored, dirty", Du (old) zaluw "tawny" | L succidus (cf. It sudicio, Sp sucio, Pg sujo, Ladin language scich, Friul soç) |
| salle "room" | * sala "hall, room" | ODu zele "house made with sawn beams", Many place names: "Melsele", "Broeksele" (Brussels) etc. | |
| saule "willow" | * salha "sallow, pussy willow" | OHG salaha, G Salweide "pussy willow", OE sealh | L salix "willow" (OFr sauz, sausse) |
| saisir "to , ; bring suit, vest a court" (ML sacīre "to lay claim to, appropriate") | * sakan "to take legal action"Onions, op. cit., s.v. "seize", 807. | Du zeiken "to nag, to quarrel", zaak "court case", OS sakan "to accuse", OHG sahhan "to strive, quarrel, rebuke", Old english sacan "to quarrel, claim by law, accuse"; | VL aderigere (OFr aerdre "to seize") |
| standard "standard" (OFr estandart "standard") | * standhard "stand hard, stand firm" | Du staan (to stand) + hard "hard" | |
| tamis "sieve" (It tamigio) | * tamisa | MDu temse, teemse, obs. Du teems "sifter" | L crībrum (Fr crible "riddle, sift") |
| tomber "to fall" (OFr tumer "to somersault") | * tūmōn "to " | Du tuimelen "to tumble", OS/OHG tūmōn "to tumble", | L cadere (archaic Fr choir, Fr chute (a fall) ) |
| trêve "truce" | * treuwa "loyalty, agreement" | Du trouw "faithfulness, loyalty" | L pausa (Fr pause) |
| troène "privet" (dialectal truèle, Medieval Latin trūlla) | * trugil "hard wood; small " | OHG trugilboum, harttrugil "dogwood; privet", G Hartriegel "dogwood", dialectally "privet", (dial. Eastern) Trögel, archaic (dial. Swabian) Trügel "small trough, , " | L ligustrum |
| tuyau "pipe, hose" (OFr tuiel, tuel) | * þūta | MDu tūte "nipple; pipe", Du tuit ", nozzle", OE þēote "channel; canal" | L canna "reed; pipe" (It/SwRom/FrProv cana "pipe") |
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